CONTENS PREFACE.............................................................. 6 
Chapter 1. Introduction into the course of medical biology. Levels of organization and fundamental characteristics of living matter. Chemical composition of the cell 
1.1. Introduction into the course of medical biology .............................7 
1.2. Levels of organization and fundamental characteristics of living matter...........................9 
1.3. Chemical composition of the cell .........................12 
Tasks & Questions.......................................................................17
Chapter 2. Classification of living organisms. Non-cellular and cellular organisms. Prokaryotic cell 
2.1. Non-cellular infectious particles. Viruses, viroids, prions...................19 
2.2. Cellular organisms. Prokaryotic cell...................... 21
Tasks & Questions................................................................24
Chapter 3. Morphology of the eukaryotic cell 
3.1. Structural components of eukaryotic cell. Cell membrane........27 
3.2. Cytoplasm. Cell organelles ..........................................32 
3.3. Nucleus. Human karyotype ........................................37 
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 46 
Chapter 4. Organization of information and energy flow in the cell. Molecular basis of heredity 
4.1. Notion of cell metabolism. Assimilation and dissimilation.................49 
4.2. Information flow. Molecular basis of heredity. Nucleic acids............................50 
4.3. Gene and its structure. Genetic code................59 
4.4. Expression of genes. Protein biosynthesis...... 62
4.5. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes...................66
4.6. The human genome..............................................69
4.7. Energy flow in a cell........................................73 
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 74 
Chapter 5. Reproduction on the cellular and organismic level
 5.1. Mitotic cycle. Mitosis. Cell death..........................77 
5.2. Mitotic cycle regulation. Genetic basis of tumour growth..............................................85
5.3. Meiosis..............................................................................90 
5.4. Organisms reproduction...........................................95
5.5. Gametogenesis. Fertilization..........................98 
5.6. Cloning of organisms................................107 
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 109  
Chapter 6. Human ontogenesis. Prenatal and postnatal periods of ontogenesis 
6.1. Ontogenesis. Embryonic period of ontogenesis ....................................................................112 
6.2. Critical periods of embryogenesis. Congenital defects............................................128 
6.3. Postnatal period of ontogenesis............................. 130
6.4. Post-reproductive period. Aging and death...... 138
6.5. Regeneration and transplantation........................141
 6.6. Homeostasis. Biological rhythms............................ 146
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 151 
Chapter 7. Regularity of heredity in human 
7.1. Mono–and dihybrid cross. Mendel’s laws ....... 154
7.2. Multiple alleles. Blood groups. Immunogenetics ..................................................161 
7.3. Allelic and non-allelic gene interactions Pleiotropy.......................................172
7.4. Chromosomal theory of heredity..........................176 
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 188 
Chapter 8. Variation, its forms and manifestation
 8.1. Phenotypic variation ........................................................ 193
8.2. Genetic variation. Recombination and mutations................................ 194
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 200 
Chapter 9. Methods of human genetics 
9.1. Peculiarities of human genetics. Notion of hereditary disorders ................................204 
9.2. Pedigree analysis (genealogic method)............ 205
9.3. Twins method of genetics ...........................................209
 9.4. Cytogenetic methods. Chromosomal disorders. Dermatoglyphics.....................212
9.5. Single gene disorders. Biochemical method of medical genetics. DNA diagnosis ........220
 9.6. Population statistic method...................................227
9.7. Prophylaxis of hereditary disorders. Genetic counselling. Prenatal diagnosis........233
 Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 235 
Chapter 10. General notions of parasitology. Protists as human parasites 
10.1. General notions of parasitology........................... 239
10.2. General characteristic of protists. Parasitic amoeboid protozoa.................................242 
10.3. Parasitic Ciliates.................................................................. 248
10.4. Parasitic Flagellates ......................................................... 250
10.5. Apicomplexa parasites................................................. 260
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 270 
Chapter 11. Helminthes. Flat worms and round worms as human parasites 
11.1. General characteristics of flat worms. Flukes (Trematodes)....................................275
11.2. Tapeworms (Cestodes) as human parasites ........................................................289
11.3. General characteristics of Roundworms (Nematodes). Roundworms – geohelminthes............304
11.4. Roundworms – biohelminthes ....................315 
11.5. Methods of laboratory diagnosis of helminthoses ..................................324
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 332 
Chapter 12. Arthropodes as poisonous animals, vectors and agents of human diseases 
12.1. General characteristics of Arthropods ............ 337
12.2. Medical importance of Crustaceans and Arachnida. Spiders and ticks...........................338 
12.3. General characteristic of Insecta. Insects as vectors and agents of human diseases......347
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 362 
Chapter 13. Evolution theory. Phylogenesis of organ systems in Vertebrates 
13.1. Evolution theory................................................................366 
13.2. Phylogenesis of organ systems in chordates ........................................................375
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 395 
Chapter 14. Ecology. Biosphere as human environment. Poisonous organisms 
14.1. Ecological factors. Ecosystems .............................. 398
14.2. Ecological systems. Biosphere............................... 404
14.3. Human ecology................................................................. 408
14.4. Poisonous organisms.................................................... 414
Tasks & Questions....................................................................... 427 
REFERENCES.............................................................429
 KEY ANSWERS...................................................430
 INDEX ............... 434