PREFACE ..........................................................10
Part 1. BIOMOLECULES. CELLS. METABOLISM
Chapter 1. BIOCHEMISTRY: BIOMOLECULES, METABOLISM................ 13
1.1. Biochemistry as fundamental biomedical science....................... 13
1.2. Biomolecules – major classes, representatives ......................... 14
Chapter 2. PROTEINS. AMINO ACIDS. PEPTIDES.......................... 19
2.1. Amino acids: structure, properties................................... 19
2.2. Peptide bonds, polypeptides .......................................24
2.3. Proteins. Levels of protein structure .................................28
Chapter 3. NUCLEIC ACIDS. NUCLEOTIDES. DNA. RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.1. Nucleic acids and the flow of genetic information ......................36
3.2. Nucleotides: structure, biological functions ........................... 37
3.3. Nucleic acids as polynucleotides: DNA, RNA ..........................42
Chapter 4. CARBOHYDRATES. SUGARS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES............46
4.1. Monosaccharides. Hexoses. Pentoses. Amino sugars ................... 47
4.2. Oligosaccharides. Homopolysaccharides .............................49
4.3. Heteropolysaccharides. Glycoproteins ............................... 53
Chapter 5. LIPIDS. FATTY ACIDS. BIOMEMBRANES ....................... 57
5.1. General characteristics of lipids. Biological functions ................... 57
5.2. Fatty acids: structure and properties ................................ 58
5.3. Structure and properties of special classes of lipids .................... 61
5.4. Steroids: cholesterol, bile acids, steroid hormones ..................... 67
Chapter 6. CELLS. METABOLISM: GENERAL ASPECTS ..................... 71
6.1. Metabolism: overall conception, metabolic pathways ................... 71
6.2. Cells. Compartmentalization of metabolic pathways.................... 72
Part 2. ENZYMES. GENERAL METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Chapter 7. METABOLISM. ENZYMATIC REACTIONS ....................... 77
CONTENTS
7.1. Metabolism: general conceptions, metabolic pathways .................. 77
7.2. Enzymes as the principal molecular devices of metabolism ..............80
7.3. Enzyme nomenclature and classification .............................84
7.4. Molecular mechanisms of enzyme catalysis .......................... 91
Chapter 8. COENZYMES. CONTROL OF ENZYMATIC REACTIONS ............94
8.1. Coenzymes: classification, structure. Vitamins as coenzyme precursors ....94
8.2. Kinetics of enzyme catalysis. Michaelis – Menten theory................99
8.3. Inhibition of enzymes. Kinds of inhibitors ...........................103
8.4. Enzymic catalysis regulatory mechanisms ........................... 107
Chapter 9. BIOENERGETICS-1. CATABOLIC PATHWAYS.TRICARBOXYLIC
ACID CYCLE ....................................................... 114
9.1. Bioenergetics. ATP and other high-energy compounds ................. 114
9.2. Overview of catabolic pathway steps ............................... 116
9.3. Tricarboxylic acid cycle: overview .................................. 117
9.4. Tricarboxylic acid cycle: reactions and enzymes ...................... 118
Chapter 10. BIOENERGETICS-2. MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION ...................................... 124
10.1. General notions of free energy transfer in biochemical systems ......... 124
10.2. Electron transport chain in mitochondria ........................... 126
10.3. Oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase .......................... 131
Part 3. METABOLISM OF MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOMOLECULES
Chapter 11. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM-1. PATHWAYS OF GLUCOSE
OXIDATION ....................................................... 137
11.1. Major routes of carbohydrate metabolism........................... 137
11.2. Aerobic and anaerobic oxidation of glucose. Glycolysis ................ 139
11.3. Enzymatic reactions of glycolysis. Regulation of glycolysis .............140
11.4. Aerobic oxidation of glucose. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate.....149
11.5. Pentose phosphate pathway .....................................150
Chapter 12. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM-2. GLYCOGEN METABOLISM.
GLUCONEOGENESIS................................................ 156
12.1. Glycogen metabolism. Glycogen-storage diseases .................... 156
12.2. Gluconeogenesis: reactions, regulation............................. 167
12.3. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
12.4. Control of blood plasma glucose. Diabetes mellitus................... 174
Chapter 13. LIPID METABOLISM-1. TRIACYLGLYCEROL CATABOLISM.
OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS. KETOGENESIS ............................ 177
13.1. Lipids: general characteristics, biological functions ................... 177
13.2. Fat metabolism: overview, lipolysis ................................ 179
13.3. Degradation of fatty acids (ß-oxidation) ............................ 182
13.4. Ketone bodies. Ketogenesis in diabetes mellitus ..................... 188
Chapter 14. LIPID METABOLISM-2. LIPOGENESIS. CHOLESTEROL
METABOLISM. LIPID METABOLISM PATHOLOGY ........................ 193
14.1. Biosynthesis of fatty acids: reactions, enzymes ...................... 193
14.2. Biosynthesis of acylglycerols: triglycerides, phosphoglycerides.......... 197
14.3. Sphingolipids: representatives, metabolism ......................... 201
14.4. Cholesterol synthesis and biotransformation. Atherosclerosis ..........207
Chapter 15. AMINO ACID METABOLISM-1. AMINO ACID DEGRADATION:
DEAMINATION, TRANS AMINATION, DECARBOXYLATION. UREA CYCLE ...... 213
15.1. Protein turnover. Principal pathways of amino acid metabolism . . . . . . . . . 213
15.2. Transamination of amino acids: reactions, enzymes................... 216
15.3. Deamination of amino acids: reactions, enzymes .....................220
15.4. Decarboxylation of amino acids: reactions, biological significance ....... 221
15.5. Amino nitrogen metabolism. Urea cycle: reactions, enzymes............ 223
Chapter 16. AMINO ACID METABOLISM-2. AMINO ACID SPECIALIZED
METABOLIC PATHWAYS. PORPHYRIN METABOLISM ......................228
16.1. General pathways of amino acids carbon skeleton degradation .........228
16.2. Specialized pathways of individual amino acid metabolism ............ 231
16.3. Amino acids as precursors of biologically important compounds ........ 242
16.4. Diseases associated with abnormal amino acid metabolism ............244
16.5. Biosynthesis and catabolism of porphyrins. Gout .................... 245
Chapter 17. METABOLISM OF PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE
NUCLEOTIDES. PURINE DEGRADATION. GOUT .......................... 255
17.1. Nucleotides: structure, biochemical functions ....................... 255
17.2. Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides ................................ 257
17.3. Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides .............................263
17.4. Catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. Gout ...............265
Part 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
Chapter 18. GENE, GENOME. DNA REPLICATION ........................270
18.1. Gene, genome. DNA, RNA: structure, properties......................270
18.2. Telomeres. Telomerase .......................................... 281
18.3. DNA technologies ..............................................284
Chapter 19. mRNA TRANSCRIPTION. RIBOSOMAL TRANSLATION...........288
19.1. mRNA. Transcription: enzymes, mechanisms ........................288
19.2. Genetic code. Translation in ribosomes............................. 291
19.3. Ribosomal molecular machinery ..................................293
Part 5. METABOLIC CONTROL. HORMONES AND VITAMINS
Chapter 20. HORMONES-1. BIOCHEMICAL AND CELLULAR MECHANISMS
OF HORMONAL REGULATION ........................................ 301
20.1. Hormones: general definitions.................................... 301
20.2. Basic principles of hormone effects ...............................303
Chapter 21. HORMONES-2. HORMONES OF PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN NATURE... 308
21.1. Peptide and protein hormones of hypothalamus and hypophysis........308
21.2. Protein hormones of pancreatic gland.............................. 321
Chapter 22. HORMONES-3. AMINO ACID DERIVED HORMONES:
CATECHOLAMINES, THYREOIDS. LIPOPHILIC HORMONES ................ 327
22.1. Catecholamines and other biogenic amines ......................... 327
22.2. Thyroid hormones: representatives, pathology ...................... 331
22.3. Steroid hormones: representatives, effects, pathology ................ 335
22.4. Hormonal regulation of calcium homeostasis........................ 342
22.5. Eicosanoids. Biomedical and pharmacological aspects ................346
Chapter 23. BIOCHEMISTRY OF NUTRITION-1. VITAMINS AS ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS OF HUMAN DIET. WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS..............350
23.1. Biochemistry of nutrition. Components of human diet ................350
23.2. Vitamins: basic definitions, classes of vitamins ...................... 352
23.3. Water-soluble vitamins. Vitamins as coenzymes: structure,
biochemical properties.......................................... 353
Chapter 24. BIOCHEMISTRY OF NUTRITION-2. VITAMIN C.
LIPID-SOLUBLE VITAMINS AS BIOREGULATORS AND ANTIOXYDANTS ....... 367
24.1. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
24.2. Vitamin A (retinol): structure, biochemical functions..................370
24.3. Vitamin D (calciferol) as calcium and phosphorous homeostasis regulator... 373
24.4. Vitamin E (tocopherol) as principal antioxidant in human body......... 375
24.5. Vitamin K: structure of vitamers. Role in blood clotting................ 377
Part 6. BIOCHEMISTRY OF SPECIALIZED TISSUES
AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
Chapter 25. BIOCHEMISTRY OF BLOOD. HEMOSTASIS. COAGULATION
CASCADE SYSTEM .................................................380
25.1. Blood: composition, biochemical functions..........................380
25.2. Hemoglobin: transport of oxygen. Hemoglobinopathies ...............382
25.3. Hemostasis: blood clotting, fibrinolysis.............................389
Chapter 26. BIOCHEMISTRY OF SPECIALIZED CELLS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
FUNCTIONS. BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIVER. METABOLISM OF XENOBIOTICS.....398
26.1. Liver: survey of major biochemical functions ........................398
26.2. Liver: metabolism of heme and bile pigments.
Bilirubin transformation. Icterus ..................................403
26.3. Liver detoxification function. Biotransformation of xenobiotics
and endogenous waste products .................................408
Chapter 27. BIOCHEMISTRY OF TOOTH AND SALIVA ..................... 415
27.1. Anatomy and physiology of human teeth ........................... 415
27.2. Biochemical composition and molecular organization of dental tissues... 417
27.3. Tooth enamel: properties, biochemical composition .................. 417
27.4. Dentin: structure, biochemistry. Periodontum. Cementum .............420
27.5. Tooth pulp: physiology, metabolism ...............................426
27.6. Tooth pathology. Caries: biochemical aspects ....................... 427
27.7. Biochemical components and functions of saliva.....................428
Chapter 28. BIOCHEMISTRY OF MUSCLEs. MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY
OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION..........................................430
28.1. Muscle tissue: general characteristics of functions, structure
and biochemistry ..............................................430
28.2. Sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Role of calcium
in muscle contraction control ....................................440
28.3. Regulation of muscle contraction. Role of calcium in muscle
contraction control.............................................444
Chapter 29. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY
OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE ............................................446
29.1. Connective tissue: cells and biomolecules ..........................446
29.2. Structural and adhesive proteins of connective tissue.
Structural proteins of extracellular matrix ..........................450
29.3. Biochemistry of extracellular matrix. Glycosaminoglycans
and proteoglycans of connective tissue ............................ 457
29.4. Molecular pathology of connective tissue ..........................462
Chapter 30. BIOCHEMISTRY OF SPECIALIZED CELLS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
FUNCTIONS. BIOCHEMISTRY OF NERVE TISSUE AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS... 466
30.1. Nerve tissue: general characteristics of structure and functions ........466
30.2. Peculiarities of brain biochemical composition and metabolism.........469
30.3. Neurotransmitters: classification, receptors, representatives ..........470
30.4. Drugs, neurotransmitters and synapses ............................483
LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................. 487